The hardest part of passive sentences isn't conjugating the verb -- it's choosing which particle marks the agent (the person or thing doing the action).
Look at these four passive sentences, each with a different particle:
- 弟に本を読まれた。 → My book was read by my brother.
- 学校から通知を送られた。 → A notice was sent from the school.
- この橋は山田太郎によって建てられた。 → This bridge was built by Yamada Taro.
- 洪水で橋が流された。 → The bridge was washed away by a flood.
Why four different particles? Because Japanese distinguishes based on what kind of entity performed the action.
Four Markers at a Glance
| Particle | Used For | Core Nuance |
|---|---|---|
| に | People in general | Most common; marks the direct agent |
| から | People, organizations, institutions | Emphasizes source/direction |
| によって | Specific individuals, creators, institutions | Formal, written; emphasizes attribution |
| で | Natural phenomena, non-human causes | Marks cause, not agent |
に -- The Default Passive Marker
に marks the person who directly did something to you. The vast majority of passive sentences use に.
-
彼に騙されたような気がする。 → I feel like I was deceived by him.
-
電車で隣の人に足を踏まれた。 → My foot was stepped on by the person next to me on the train.
-
雨に降られて、出かけられなかった。 → I got rained on and couldn't go out. (Intransitive verb passive = adversative)
When in doubt, use に. It's the safest choice.
から -- Source is an Organization, or Emphasizing Direction
から and に are often interchangeable, but から better emphasizes the source/direction of the action, especially for non-personal entities (organizations, institutions).
-
学校から注意された。 → I was warned by the school. (Source is an organization)
-
先生から褒められた。 → I was praised by the teacher. (に also works, but から slightly emphasizes "the praise came from the teacher")
に vs から
| に | から | |
|---|---|---|
| Nuance | Someone did X to me | X came from someone/somewhere |
| Best for | Specific individuals | Organizations, or emphasizing direction |
| Example | 母に叱られた | 会社から連絡された |
In everyday life, に and から are mostly interchangeable. Exams test the finer distinctions.
によって -- Specific Individuals, Creators
によって is used in formal or written contexts to mark specific, identified individuals -- especially creators, inventors, and historical figures.
-
この橋は山田太郎によって建てられたものだ。 → This bridge was built by Yamada Taro.
-
「源氏物語」は紫式部によって書かれた。 → The Tale of Genji was written by Murasaki Shikibu.
-
この問題は警察によって解決された。 → This problem was resolved by the police.
When to Use によって
| Context | Example |
|---|---|
| Creators/inventors | ノーベルによって設立された |
| Official announcements, news | 政府によって発表された |
| Academic/historical writing | エジソンによって発明された |
によって is almost never used in casual conversation -- it belongs to written and formal registers.
で -- Natural Phenomena, Non-Human Causes
で marks not a person but an event or natural force as the cause. Strictly speaking, it doesn't mark an agent but a reason.
-
洪水で橋が流された。 → The bridge was washed away by a flood.
-
地震で家が壊された。 → The house was destroyed by the earthquake.
-
事故で電車が遅れた。 → The train was delayed due to an accident.
で is used for natural phenomena and non-human events -- floods, earthquakes, accidents, typhoons, etc.
Decision Flowchart
When you encounter a passive sentence, decide in this order:
- Is the agent a natural phenomenon or non-human event? → で
- Is the agent a specific creator or historical figure? → によって
- Is the agent an organization, and you want to emphasize source? → から
- Everything else? → に
Practice
Q1. "This novel was written by Natsume Soseki" -- which particle for Natsume Soseki?
Show Answer
によって. Natsume Soseki is a specific, identified creator. Formal attribution uses によって: 「この小説は夏目漱石によって書かれた。」
Q2. "The roof was blown off by a typhoon" -- which particle for typhoon?
Show Answer
で. A typhoon is a natural phenomenon, not a person. 「台風で屋根が飛ばされた。」
Q3. Fill in: 「母＿叱られた」 and 「会社＿注意された」
Show Answer
- 母に叱られた (A specific person → に)
- 会社から注意された (An organization → から is more natural; に also works)
Summary
- に = most common, marks the direct agent (a person)
- から = emphasizes source/direction, good for organizations
- によって = specific individuals/creators, formal and written
- で = natural phenomena/non-human causes
- When in doubt, use に; refine your choice for exams and formal writing